Know: Biological Hazards

Sector-Specific Information

The Food Industry Hub knowledge centre delivers a wide range of sector-specific information for food industry professionals.

The below is one topic from our knowledge centre. You can return to all topics by clicking here.

Biological Hazard

Definition

Biological hazards refer to harmful microorganisms or their by-products that contaminate food and pose risks to consumer health. These hazards include bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, and the toxins they produce. Biological hazards are a major concern in food safety due to their potential to cause foodborne illnesses, ranging from mild discomfort to severe health complications, including hospitalization and death.

In the food manufacturing industry, biological hazards can arise at any stage of the food supply chain, from raw material sourcing to final product distribution. Foods that are nutrient-rich, moisture-laden, or improperly stored provide ideal conditions for microbial growth, making them particularly susceptible. Controlling these hazards is integral to food safety management systems, such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), ensuring products meet safety and quality standards.

Practical Applications

1. Bacteria
   Bacteria are the most common biological hazard in food manufacturing. Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter cause significant foodborne illnesses.

• Salmonella contamination is often associated with raw poultry, eggs, and unpasteurised milk. The infectious dose is as low as 10–100 cells, making control critical. Refrigerated storage below 5°C and thorough cooking to internal temperatures of 75°C or higher are key preventive measures.
• Listeria monocytogenes thrives in cold, damp environments and can contaminate ready-to-eat products. Its growth at refrigeration temperatures necessitates stringent hygiene and equipment cleaning.

2. Viruses
   Foodborne viruses, including norovirus and hepatitis A, do not multiply in food but cause illness through contamination. Norovirus, known as the “winter vomiting bug,” can spread through infected food handlers or contaminated water. Proper hand hygiene, disinfection of surfaces, and the use of clean water are critical in preventing viral contamination.
3. Parasites
   Parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis are transmitted via undercooked or contaminated food. For example, Toxoplasma gondii in raw meat can be controlled by freezing below -20°C or cooking to 63°C. Compliance with freezing and cooking guidelines is essential to mitigate risks.
4. Fungi
   Moulds can spoil food and produce mycotoxins, harmful metabolites found in grains, nuts, and dried fruits. Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus species, are carcinogenic and tightly regulated. Storage conditions below 14% moisture content and monitoring for visible fungal growth are critical control measures.
5. Toxins
   Biological toxins, such as the botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, are among the most potent known. The anaerobic conditions in improperly canned foods facilitate toxin production. Correct processing, pH control below 4.6, and thermal sterilisation are necessary to prevent botulinum toxin formation.

Regulatory Considerations

In the UK and EU, biological hazard control is governed by comprehensive frameworks:

• Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 on food hygiene outlines general requirements for food business operators, including the prevention of biological contamination through hygiene, temperature control, and staff training.
• The Food Safety Act 1990 enforces the duty to ensure food is safe for consumption, with penalties for non-compliance.

Standards such as guidelines from Codex Alimentarius harmonise global practices. Food businesses importing from outside the EU must meet additional safety checks to address varying pathogen profiles and control systems in exporting countries.

Significance for Product Quality and Safety

Biological hazards impact not only food safety but also product quality. Spoilage caused by microbial growth can alter sensory attributes such as taste, smell, and texture, leading to customer dissatisfaction and financial losses. For instance, yeast contamination in beverages may cause off-flavours or carbonation issues, damaging brand reputation.

By prioritising biological hazard management, food manufacturers enhance consumer trust, comply with regulations, and safeguard public health.

Related Concepts

1. HACCP Systems
   HACCP is a proactive approach that identifies and controls biological hazards at critical stages. Examples include temperature monitoring during cooking and pathogen testing at packaging points.
2. Cleaning and Sanitation
   Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs) detail cleaning frequencies, chemical use, and verification methods. Effective sanitisation of equipment such as slicers, which are prone to biofilm formation, prevents microbial harbouring.
3. Cross-Contamination Control
   Segregation of raw and ready-to-eat foods, along with utensil sterilisation, minimises pathogen transfer. For example, colour-coded cutting boards can reduce the risk of bacterial cross-contact.
4. Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
   Overuse of antimicrobials can lead to resistant strains, complicating biological hazard control. Strategies such as rotating sanitising agents prevent resistance development.
5. Technologies
   Advanced pathogen detection tools, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and rapid ATP tests, provide precise identification of contamination. Smart sensors for real-time monitoring are also gaining traction in automated food processing lines.

Expert Insights

Biological hazards require vigilance and adaptability as foodborne pathogens evolve. The rising incidence of AMR highlights the need for innovative control strategies. Multi-barrier approaches—combining temperature control, robust cleaning protocols, and emerging technologies—are proving effective.

For instance, predictive microbiology models allow manufacturers to assess microbial growth risks under specific conditions. These models inform shelf-life determinations, reducing spoilage and recall incidents.

Globalisation further complicates biological hazard management, with diverse supply chains introducing varied microbial profiles. Collaborative frameworks like the Codex Alimentarius enable harmonised safety standards, ensuring international trade does not compromise public health.

By integrating cutting-edge tools, robust training programs, and stringent hygiene practices, food manufacturers can mitigate biological hazards effectively, securing the production of safe, high-quality food.

About The Food Industry Hub Knowledge Centre

The Food Industry Hub knowledge centre delivers informative content on a variety of topics pertinent to the food manufacturing industry.